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Cover Crops Can Increase the Growth Parameters of Main Crop

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Crop planted to manage erosion and soil quality

In agronomics, cover crops are plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Comprehend crops manage soil erosion, soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem—an ecological system managed and shaped past humans. Comprehend crops may exist an off-flavor ingather planted afterwards harvesting the cash ingather. They may grow over winter.[1] [2]

Soil erosion [edit]

Although cover crops can perform multiple functions in an agroecosystem simultaneously, they are frequently grown for the sole purpose of preventing soil erosion. Soil erosion is a process that tin irreparably reduce the productive chapters of an agroecosystem. Comprehend crops reduce soil loss by improving soil construction and increasing infiltration, protecting the soil surface, scattering raindrop energy and reducing the velocity of the movement of water over the soil surface.[3] Dense encompass crop stands physically boring down the velocity of rainfall earlier it contacts the soil surface, preventing soil splashing and erosive surface runoff.[four] Additionally, vast cover crop root networks help ballast the soil in place and increment soil porosity, producing suitable habitat networks for soil macrofauna.[5] Information technology keeps the enrichment of the soil good for the next few years.

Soil fertility management [edit]

Ane of the primary uses of encompass crops is to increment soil fertility. These types of cover crops are referred to as "green manure". They are used to manage a range of soil macronutrients and micronutrients. Of the various nutrients, the impact that cover crops have on nitrogen direction has received the most attending from researchers and farmers, because nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient in crop production.

Often, green manure crops are grown for a specific menses, and then plowed under earlier reaching total maturity to meliorate soil fertility and quality. The stalks left block the soil from being eroded.

Green manure crops are unremarkably leguminous, meaning they are part of the pea family, Fabaceae. This family is unique in that all of the species in information technology fix pods, such as bean, lentil, lupins and alfalfa. Leguminous comprehend crops are typically loftier in nitrogen and tin can often provide the required quantity of nitrogen for crop production. In conventional farming, this nitrogen is typically applied in chemical fertilizer class. This quality of cover crops is chosen fertilizer replacement value.[six]

Another quality unique to leguminous cover crops is that they form symbiotic relationships with the rhizobial bacteria that reside in legume root nodules. Lupins is nodulated by the soil microorganism Bradyrhizobium sp. (Lupinus). Bradyrhizobia are encountered as microsymbionts in other leguminous crops (Argyrolobium, Lotus, Ornithopus, Acacia, Lupinus) of Mediterranean origin. These leaner convert biologically unavailable atmospheric nitrogen gas (N
2 ) to biologically available ammonium (NH +
four ) through the process of biological nitrogen fixation.

Prior to the advent of the Haber–Bosch process, an energy-intensive method developed to acquit out industrial nitrogen fixation and create chemical nitrogen fertilizer, most nitrogen introduced to ecosystems arose through biological nitrogen fixation.[7] Some scientists believe that widespread biological nitrogen fixation, achieved mainly through the apply of cover crops, is the only alternative to industrial nitrogen fixation in the try to maintain or increase future food product levels.[eight] [9] Industrial nitrogen fixation has been criticized as an unsustainable source of nitrogen for food product due to its reliance on fossil fuel energy and the environmental impacts associated with chemic nitrogen fertilizer use in agriculture.[ten] Such widespread environmental impacts include nitrogen fertilizer losses into waterways, which tin lead to eutrophication (nutrient loading) and ensuing hypoxia (oxygen depletion) of large bodies of water.

An example of this is in the Mississippi Valley Basin, where years of fertilizer nitrogen loading into the watershed from farm production have resulted in an annual summer hypoxic "expressionless zone" off the Gulf of Mexico that reached an area of over 22,000 square kilometers in 2017.[11] [12] The ecological complexity of marine life in this zone has been diminishing as a event.[13]

As well as bringing nitrogen into agroecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation, types of cover crops known as "take hold of crops" are used to retain and recycle soil nitrogen already nowadays. The catch crops have up surplus nitrogen remaining from fertilization of the previous ingather, preventing it from being lost through leaching,[14] or gaseous denitrification or volatilization.[15]

Take hold of crops are typically fast-growing annual cereal species adjusted to scavenge available nitrogen efficiently from the soil.[16] The nitrogen fixed in catch crop biomass is released back into the soil once the catch crop is incorporated as a green manure or otherwise begins to decompose.

An example of green manure use comes from Nigeria, where the encompass ingather Mucuna pruriens (velvet edible bean) has been found to increase the availability of phosphorus in soil after a farmer applies rock phosphate.[17]

Soil quality management [edit]

Encompass crops can also amend soil quality past increasing soil organic affair levels through the input of comprehend crop biomass over time. Increased soil organic matter enhances soil structure, as well as the h2o and nutrient belongings and buffering capacity of soil.[18] It can also pb to increased soil carbon sequestration, which has been promoted as a strategy to help start the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.[19] [20] [21]

Soil quality is managed to produce optimum circumstances for crops to flourish. The principal factors of soil quality are soil salination, pH, microorganism balance and the prevention of soil contamination.

Water management [edit]

By reducing soil erosion, embrace crops often likewise reduce both the rate and quantity of water that drains off the field, which would normally pose environmental risks to waterways and ecosystems downstream.[22] Encompass ingather biomass acts as a physical barrier between rainfall and the soil surface, assuasive raindrops to steadily trickle downwards through the soil profile. Also, equally stated above, cover crop root growth results in the formation of soil pores, which in addition to enhancing soil macrofauna habitat provides pathways for h2o to filter through the soil profile rather than draining off the field equally surface period. With increased water infiltration, the potential for soil water storage and the recharging of aquifers can be improved.[23]

Just before cover crops are killed (past such practices including mowing, tilling, discing, rolling, or herbicide application) they contain a large amount of moisture. When the cover ingather is incorporated into the soil, or left on the soil surface, it often increases soil wet. In agroecosystems where water for crop production is in short supply, embrace crops can exist used equally a mulch to conserve water by shading and cooling the soil surface. This reduces evaporation of soil moisture. In other situations farmers endeavour to dry the soil out as quickly as possible going into the planting season. Here prolonged soil moisture conservation can be problematic.

While cover crops can assistance to conserve water, in temperate regions (particularly in years with below boilerplate atmospheric precipitation) they can draw downwardly soil water supply in the leap, particularly if climatic growing conditions are expert. In these cases, just before crop planting, farmers oftentimes face a tradeoff between the benefits of increased comprehend crop growth and the drawbacks of reduced soil wet for cash crop production that season. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen is balanced with this awarding.[ commendation needed ]

Weed management [edit]

Cover crop in South Dakota

Thick cover crop stands ofttimes compete well with weeds during the cover crop growth period, and tin prevent most germinated weed seeds from completing their life bike and reproducing. If the cover crop is flattened downwardly on the soil surface rather than incorporated into the soil equally a green manure after its growth is terminated, information technology tin class a well-nigh impenetrable mat. This drastically reduces light transmittance to weed seeds, which in many cases reduces weed seed germination rates.[24] Furthermore, even when weed seeds germinate, they often run out of stored energy for growth earlier building the necessary structural capacity to interruption through the cover crop mulch layer. This is oft termed the cover crop smother result.[25]

Some encompass crops suppress weeds both during growth and subsequently decease.[26] During growth these comprehend crops compete vigorously with weeds for available infinite, light, and nutrients, and subsequently death they smother the next flush of weeds past forming a mulch layer on the soil surface. For example, researchers constitute that when using Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweetclover) every bit a cover crop in an improved dormant system (where a fallow period is intentionally improved by any number of different direction practices, including the planting of cover crops), weed biomass only constituted between ane–12% of total standing biomass at the terminate of the cover crop growing season.[26] Furthermore, after cover crop termination, the xanthous sweetclover residues suppressed weeds to levels 75–97% lower than in fallow (no yellow sweetclover) systems.

In addition to competition-based or concrete weed suppression, sure comprehend crops are known to suppress weeds through allelopathy.[27] [28] This occurs when certain biochemical cover crop compounds are degraded that happen to be toxic to, or inhibit seed formation of, other establish species. Some well known examples of allelopathic cover crops are Secale cereale (rye), Vicia villosa (hairy vetch), Trifolium pratense (red clover), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum-sudangrass), and species in the family unit Brassicaceae, particularly mustards.[29] In ane study, rye cover crop residues were found to have provided between eighty% and 95% control of early season broadleaf weeds when used every bit a mulch during the product of different cash crops such as soybean, tobacco, corn, and sunflower.[30]

In a 2010[ date verification needed ] study released by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), scientists examined how rye seeding rates and planting patterns afflicted cover crop production. The results show that planting more pounds per acre of rye increased the cover ingather's production as well as decreased the amount of weeds. The same was true when scientists tested seeding rates on legumes and oats; a higher density of seeds planted per acre decreased the amount of weeds and increased the yield of legume and oat production. The planting patterns, which consisted of either traditional rows or grid patterns, did not seem to brand a significant affect on the encompass ingather's production or on the weed production in either cover crop. The ARS scientists concluded that increased seeding rates could be an effective method of weed control.[31]

Disease management [edit]

In the aforementioned way that allelopathic properties of embrace crops tin can suppress weeds, they can likewise break disease cycles and reduce populations of bacterial and fungal diseases,[32] and parasitic nematodes.[33] [34] Species in the family Brassicaceae, such as mustards, take been widely shown to suppress fungal disease populations through the release of naturally occurring toxic chemicals during the degradation of glucosinolade compounds in their plant prison cell tissues.[35]

Pest management [edit]

Some cover crops are used equally then-called "trap crops", to attract pests away from the crop of value and toward what the pest sees as a more favorable habitat.[36] Trap crop areas tin can be established within crops, inside farms, or within landscapes. In many cases the trap ingather is grown during the aforementioned flavor as the nutrient crop beingness produced. The limited area occupied by these trap crops can be treated with a pesticide once pests are drawn to the trap in large plenty numbers to reduce the pest populations. In some organic systems, farmers drive over the trap crop with a large vacuum-based implement to physically pull the pests off the plants and out of the field.[37] This system has been recommended for employ to help control the lygus bugs in organic strawberry production.[38] Another example of trap crops are nematode-resistant white mustard (Sinapis alba) and radish (Raphanus sativus). They can be grown after a chief (cereal) crop and trap nematodes, for case the beet cyst nematode[39] [40] and Columbian root knot nematode.[41] When grown, nematodes hatch and are attracted to the roots. After entering the roots they cannot reproduce in the root due to a hypersensitive resistance reaction of the found. Hence the nematode population is greatly reduced, by 70–99%, depending on species and cultivation fourth dimension.

Other comprehend crops are used to attract natural predators of pests by imitating elements of their habitat. This is a form of biological control known as habitat augmentation, only achieved with the use of cover crops.[42] Findings on the relationship betwixt embrace crop presence and predator–pest population dynamics accept been mixed, suggesting the demand for detailed information on specific cover crop types and management practices to best complement a given integrated pest management strategy. For example, the predator mite Euseius tularensis (Congdon) is known to help control the pest citrus thrips in Central California citrus orchards. Researchers found that the planting of several different leguminous embrace crops (such as bong bean, woollypod vetch, New Zealand white clover, and Austrian winter pea) provided sufficient pollen equally a feeding source to cause a seasonal increase in Eastward. tularensis populations, which with good timing could potentially introduce enough predatory pressure level to reduce pest populations of citrus thrips.[43]

Diversity and wildlife [edit]

Although cover crops are normally used to serve one of the higher up discussed purposes, they often simultaneously improve subcontract habitat for wildlife. The use of cover crops adds at least one more dimension of found diversity to a greenbacks crop rotation. Since the comprehend crop is typically non a crop of value, its direction is usually less intensive, providing a window of "soft" human influence on the subcontract. This relatively "hands-off" management, combined with the increased on-farm heterogeneity produced by the establishment of cover crops, increases the likelihood that a more circuitous trophic structure will develop to support a higher level of wild animals multifariousness.[44]

In one written report, researchers compared arthropod and songbird species composition and field use between conventionally and comprehend cropped cotton fields in the Southern United States. The encompass cropped cotton wool fields were planted to clover, which was left to grow in between cotton fiber rows throughout the early on cotton fiber growing season (stripcover cropping). During the migration and convenance flavor, they establish that songbird densities were 7–20 times higher in the cotton fields with integrated clover cover ingather than in the conventional cotton fields. Arthropod abundance and biomass was also college in the clover cover cropped fields throughout much of the songbird breeding season, which was attributed to an increased supply of flower nectar from the clover. The clover cover ingather enhanced songbird habitat by providing embrace and nesting sites, and an increased nutrient source from higher arthropod populations.[45]

See also [edit]

  • Agroecology
  • Allelopathy
  • Biological control
  • Green manure
  • Basis embrace
  • Nitrogen cycle
  • Nitrogen fixation
  • Organic matter
  • Soil contamination

References [edit]

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Farther reading [edit]

  • SARE National. Topic: Cover Crops. [one]
  • Midwest Cover Crops Quango. [two] Resources for growers, researchers, and educators.
  • Clark, Andy, ed. (2007). Managing Embrace Crops Profitably (PDF) (3rd ed.). Beltsville, Maryland: Sustainable Agriculture Network.
  • Giller, Chiliad. East.; Cadisch, One thousand. (1995). "Future benefits from biological nitrogen fixation: An ecological approach to agronomics". Plant and Soil (Historical Archive). 174 (1–2): 255–277. doi:10.1007/bf00032251.
  • Hartwig, N. L.; Ammon, H. U. (2002). "50th Anniversary - Invited article - Cover crops and living mulches". Weed Science. 50 (six): 688–699. doi:ten.1614/0043-1745(2002)050[0688:aiacca]two.0.co;2.
  • Colina, E. C.; Ngouajio, M.; Nair, Chiliad. G. (2006). "Differential responses of weeds and vegetable crops to aqueous extracts of hairy vetch and cowpea". HortSci. 31: 695–700.
  • Lu, Y. C.; Watkins, K. B.; Teasdale, J. R.; Abdul-Baki, A. A. (2000). "Encompass crops in sustainable nutrient production". Food Reviews International. 16 (2): 121–157. doi:ten.1081/fri-100100285.
  • Snapp, S. S.; Swinton, Southward. M.; Labarta, R.; Mutch, D.; Blackness, J. R.; Leep, R.; Nyiraneza, J.; O'Neil, K. (2005). "Evaluating cover crops for benefits, costs and performance inside cropping arrangement niches". Agron. J. 97: 1–11.
  • Thomsen, I. K.; Christensen, B. T. (1999). "Nitrogen conserving potential of successive ryegrass grab crops in continuous spring barley". Soil Use and Management. fifteen (three): 195–200. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.1999.tb00088.x.

External links [edit]

  • [3] "Encompass Crops," Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, v. 2, ed. past L. H. Bailey (1911). A short encyclopedia commodity, early master source on varieties and uses of cover crops.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_crop

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